The Jama Mapun - A Changing Samal Society in Southern Philippines

A Book Review

Culture changes overtime. Any society has to learn to adapt to any changes that happen in its environment if it has to survive and flourish. This adaptation consequently affects the society’s lifestyle, values, practices and belief system. This is exactly what happened to a group of Muslim people in the southern part of the Philippines who are called Jama Mapun, one of the many ethnolinguistic groups that inhabited Cagayan de Sulu and Palawan.

The book is an ethnographic study of the Jama Mapun – a group of Samal people who are found not only in Cagayan de Sulu and Palawan but also in North Borneo. Casino’s study took all of ten years to finish. Within the span of ten years, the Samal society that the author had known in his first visit gradually evolved. The changes that Casino noted contributed to the wealth of material which he already has gathered through the years in the course of his studies of the Jama Mapun.

The scope of the study is historical. By making use of the participant observation method, Casino tried to answer “what moved the Jama Mapun society from its traditional to its modern form? What holds this society together?”

The book actually evolved from these two questions. In order to answer these queries, Casino gave a historical account of the life and societal evolution of the Jama Mapun since the Spanish times up to the present. The author used the notion of “determinants” to find out the factors that have contributed to the evolution of the Jama Mapun society. The first notion was change agent that influenced the socio-cultural systems. The second is adaptation, and the third co-variation.

Casino explained that in “Jama Mapun’s case ‘change agent’ refers to those actions during the American and subsequent Philippine administrations impinged upon all major institutions of the society.” Adaptation, on the other hand, can happen either by “choice or necessity”. In the case of Jama Mapun, “adaptational decisions are found among the traders, teachers, and newer political leaders.” To show how co-variation took place in Jama Mapun society, Casino used “Dahrendorf’s (1965:30-35) ‘power postulate’, which states that social stratification, in the last analysis, is caused and maintained by force or the threat of force as a means of sanctioning social norms.”

The author traced this study of Jama Mapun society in three periods, from 1531 to 1900, 1900 to 1945, and 1945 to 1970. Data on the first two periods were based from written accounts of early anthropologists and colonial settlers. The third period, although still relied on written accounts was enriched by data and observations gathered by the author when he did his fieldwork among the Jama Mapun.

In the first chapter of the book, Casino waxed nostalgic references on how contrasting it would have looked had two photographs of “Cagayan de Sulu and its inhabitants, the Jama Mapun” taken centuries apart, are put side by side. This is to emphasize the great transformation that has taken place not only on the island but on the people themselves.

Casino made an interesting observation on the life and practices of this particular group of people. He painstakingly identified the different ethnolinguistic groups of Muslims, their similarities and differences such as the Tausug, Maguindanao, Maranao, Samal, Yakan, Badjao, Jama Mapun, Palawanun, Molbog and Sangil. These different groups are scattered all over Mindanao, Palawan and Norh Borneo. As in any kind of scholarly research, one cannot just isolate the subject of study from its environment. Athough Casino’s main interest was the Jama Mapun he had also to take into account other Muslim groups, “Christian and traditional peoples whose histories” have become a part of the Jama Mapun’s existence.

Casino traced the population distribution of Jama Mapun from Cagayan de Sulu to Southern Palawan, coastal North Borneo and “the many small islands in between.” The two communities he used as “base of observation” for his study were Barrio Duhul Batu on the northeast corner of Cagayan de Sulu and Barrio Pulot in the southeastern Palawan.

Basing largely from written accounts of earlier historian and anthropologists, Casino made a description of traditional Muslim government in the early centuries which was called a sultanate. Among the many groups that were part of this sultanate was the Jama Mapun who “were generally commoners; their local village headmen and district chiefs were either rich commoners or Tausug datus who established themselves as chiefs in Samal areas.”

This traditional government would soon collapse at the pressure of foreign domination. Casino mentioned some token resistance shown by one district against foreign power. But what was specific in his narrative was the Jama Mapun’s readiness to take on the ideas imposed on them especially by the Americans whose presence had left a great impact on the political, economic and educational system of the society.

The innovations brought by the Americans as noted by Casino in the book brought changes not only in government, but in politics and education as well. Some of these changes may have been adapted by reason of necessity as well as choice. For instance, the Americans did away with the sultanate and introduced the American way of governing that determines who will be in power by means of elections. In the area of economics, Casino mentioned the Jama Mapun’s practice of huma farming which they have been doing for generations, but when Guy Stratton (the American deputy governor of Sulu) came and introduced coconut farming, the indigenous people eventually adopted the idea. Another economic innovation that the Jama Mapun adopted was the motorboat which had increased their capability for trading. This one was clearly an influence of Chinese and Arab traders that frequented the area.

To have a deeper understanding of the value system and socio-cultural practices of the Jama Mapun, Casino presented several cases of family conflicts involving land disputes, as well as some Islamic rituals. The cases offer the reader a glimpse of the communal aspect of the Jama Mapun’s way of life. Casino mentioned two cases on Islamic rituals, the death anniversary prayers and the annual rite of cleansing. Another case was the story of Tima, which gives the reader a glance on how family affairs, such as bride-price for a girl to be married, sometimes had to be settled by the village chief. Disputes over inheritance also fall within the jurisdiction of the village heads. To this Casino also provided several cases.

In the latter part of the book, Casino made a synthesis of his observations of the Jama Mapun. He analyzed how social stratification in the traditional society of Jama Mapun became the basis of the changes that eventually happened in the society.

But even in a “transformed state,” the Jama Mapuns are still a “stratified and differentiated society,” Casino noted. The “power postulate” that Casino mentioned earlier is still very much present in the modern society albeit in a different form. Now it is modern politics that produce “new power elite” that had the means to surround themselves with wealth and prestige. Whereas before, it was the Sultan or Datu who lord it over the indigenous group, now the modern politicians have taken over. Whether it is taken in a positive note or not, (Casino did not mention it) the Jama Mapun simply adapted to the changes that happened in their life.

Casino noted one striking aspect among Jama Mapun and Muslims in general. This is one characteristic that gives one a profound understanding of Muslim culture. It is worth noting that they, as a people, might be willing or ready to adapt to new innovations as long as these did not threaten their religion. When for instance, education was first introduced, the Jama Mapun were fearful and suspicious. They saw it as a threat to their religion to the point that other members of the community fled the area. It somehow explains why Muslims in general are very jealous of their Islamic faith. For the Muslims Islam “is a way of life.” Their whole being and all activities revolve around it. It is what holds them together as a people.

This book is interesting to read inasmuch as it provides details on the various practices and lifestyle of this particular ethnolinguistic group. It is an eye opener especially at this time where conflicts between Christians and Muslims are happening not only in the southern part of the country but elsewhere in the world. It provides the reader a profound understanding not only of the Samal way of life but also of Muslims in general since they share the same cultural practices and belief. On a personal note I also realized there is a lot to learn about our Muslim brothers and sisters. It is in exposing oneself to others’ culture that one gets a grasp of the others’ reality. With understanding comes acceptance and respect.

Acceptance and respect are two important elements that help build a fruitful understanding not only between Christians and Muslims but also among other ethnolinguistic groups.

The Muslims have been generally categorized as terrorists. The media have unconsciously promoted this general concept on Muslims because of the way it headlines news. If a Muslim is caught in any criminal activities, it is common to see headlines like this: “Muslim killed in a shoot out… Muslim kidnapped girl…” But we do not see a headline that says: “Christian killed in a shoot out… Christian killed girl…” What does it mean? Maybe without meaning to, we have unconsciously labeled the Muslim people as terrorists, kidnappers and killers. People tend to overlook the fact that Muslims are composed of individuals, many of whom are peace loving (just like the Jama Mapun) and abhor terroristic acts perpetrated by some misguided elements in the Islamic society.

The ethnocentric attitude of some Christians towards Muslims becomes a hindrance in building up a relationship that is founded on trust. Trust is an essential component in a relationship to succeed.

The Muslims as well as other ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines have been subjected into domination by foreign rulers. Hundred of years of subjugation have raised havoc in the Filipinos’ sense of dignity as a people. Although Muslims in the South had been able to resist Spanish colonial rule, they were not as lucky when the Americans came.

Ironically, the Muslims will continue to fight for autonomy and freedom even years after America had granted the Philippines its independence. The Muslims have never felt free in their own region, in their own land.

The presence of soldiers in Mindanao areas have also contributed in breeding distrust among Muslims. Ongoing hostilities have made them virtual prisoners in their own turf. Whereas their life before could be described as simple, now, they are poorer and miserable. The conflict has left them homeless, without property, and education, to help them start a new life.

As Casino noted in his book, the Muslims are very suspicious of anything they consider a threat to Islam. Schools are regarded as such because Muslims thought Christian teachers are out to convert them.

“It must begin with trust,” as Archbishop Capalla (President of Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines) who is into dialogue with Muslims, said.

Trust on the part of both Christians and Muslims, would mean allowing each other to be. Cultural adaptation does not mean assimilation. The Muslims, being the minority always feel the threat of being assimilated, hence their difficulty in exercising their Islamic way of life in a hegemonic Christian environment.

Islam, like Christianity, is a religion of peace. Any Muslim who knows his or her Koran well subscribes to this teaching and makes peace a way of life. However, without understanding and trust, acceptance and respect, any attempt to bridge the gap between Christian and Muslim would be difficult to achieve given the history of conflict and distrust between these two groups.

The Reality of Everyday Life

I. The Social Construction of Reality

There are multiple realities in our life. But among all these realities there is one that tops all these and this is called the reality of everyday life. This consists of the “here and now” of our existence which is lived in constant interaction and communication with others.

The reality of everyday life is often taken for granted as reality. Why is this so? Maybe because we usually take for granted something or anything that has been there all along, being part and parcel of our day to day existence. Such attitude is also true with how we regard things or people around us. We take for granted that these things or people are there for us. We become aware only of their existence or importance in our lives when we need them, or something happens to them, or they suddenly disappear from the axis of our worldly existence.

Social interaction is very much part and parcel of the reality of everyday life. Such interaction gives us the opportunity to develop relationships and allow us to discover the reality of ourselves and of those with whom we come in contact with everyday. Through interaction we enter into an ongoing cycle of life’s exchanges through ideas and opinions using language expressed in words, signs and symbols.

Social experiences, whether they are individual or shared, become a part of existing knowledge that we have of ourselves, and of the society we lived in. Eventually, it leads us to develop a keen perception of who we really are, in relation with our environment and what we can do as our contribution to the society of which we are a part.

Our life becomes meaningful when it is lived for others. It means it is not myself alone at the center of the universe, but there are many others there that occupy the same space. Each person, each thing, each experience creates meaning and make up an entire story of my own meaningful existence in the world.

Life’s realities

It has been said time and again that actions speak louder than words, or the eyes being the window of the soul. I would add to this yet another saying that is very true to me, the face being the mirror of emotions or feelings. My face has betrayed me so many times to people who really know me. People close to me can easily gauge what I am feeling just by looking at my face.

I have met so many people in the course of my religious ministry; some have left indelible mark in my life because of what I have learned from them, lessons that can only be learned from persons who have really lived life in its real essence. One particular incident that I can’t forget happened years ago, when I met this woman who shared with me her life story. From the outset, it was a life full of misery, heartaches from failed relationship with husband, disappointments from children who have gone wayward, and financial difficulties. Her sufferings touched me so much, that before I knew it, my tears started to flood my face. I noticed that she stopped talking and looked at me in wonderment. She probably was at a loss on what to do with me. Anyhow, I was really touched by her strong faith and conviction, and this, without her knowing had rubbed on me. Indeed, my life’s existence is intertwined with that of others. Their experiences contribute in shaping my own way of perceiving the world, just as mine help them to accept the reality of their own existence.

II. Discourse and Construction

In this chapter of Discourse and Construction, language (along with descriptions and practices) is introduced by way of metaphor of construction. The author stated that the metaphor of construction works on two levels when applied to descriptions. The first is the idea that descriptions and accounts construct the world, or at least versions of the world. The second idea is that descriptions and accounts are themselves constructed, assembled, put together. Reality is very much a part of these human practices of assembling and putting together. In other words, reality is also constructed. And this is constructed according to our own view of the world around us.

Benjamin Whorf, a linguist-constructionist, developed a hypothesis stating that the language they used determines people’s perception of the world. This he explained by way of example of the Eskimo tribes who have different names for snow, whether this snow has just fallen, wet, or frozen; simply because they have a wide range of words available to describe it.

Language constructs our perception of the world. This perception is clearly mirrored at the way we make descriptions of things and people around us, and the events that happen in our lives.

There are three elements discussed by the author that are very important for the understanding of facts and descriptions in language constructionism. These are anti-cognitivism, discourse and rhetoric. The author discussed the cognitivist notions of representations as inner mental entities as opposed to practices in which these representations are used. The focus on discourse is with talk and texts as part of social practices while rhetoric is seen as a pervasive feature of the way people interact and arrive in understanding.

What do I think?

I remember a story that I have read about a Scottish girl who left home against the wishes of her father. After many years, she came back, although with much hesitation since she did not know how her father would react towards her. It was getting dark, and she stood for a long time outside the gate, debating whether to go in or turn back. Finally, her father came out because of the barking of the dog and saw her standing by the gate. He ran towards her, embraced her and spoke to her in Gaelic (Scottish dialect). Later, when she told her friend about it, she said: “You should have heard my father that night calling me ‘darling’ in Gaelic. There are about fifty equivalent words of it in Gaelic and he used all of them to express his love for me.”

This beautiful story shows how language can create a lot of meaning in our life. It can heal or it can hurt. When we were still kids, for example, my siblings and I can easily gauge my mother’s moods the way she used words when talking to us. She normally used endearments when speaking to us. If we kids did not hear any endearments, we knew something was wrong and we would be in trouble.

Indeed, in whatever way language is used, either friendly or hostile, it will inevitably create for us a perception of the world and of the people around us.

III. British Cultural Studies and Television

British Cultural Studies is essentially drawn from Marxist tradition with other research ideas thrown in like structuralism and ethnography. This study tackles the close relationship between culture and social structure and brought into light the differences and ongoing struggle between the dominant classes or cultural elite, and the popular culture or subordinate group.

Cultural studies tradition introduces the idea that television programs do not have a single meaning but are relatively open texts that can be read in different ways by different people. Reading or viewing television, then, becomes a process of negotiation between the viewer and the text. The word negotiation implies that there is a conflict of interests that needs to be reconciled in some way and this shows that the viewer or reader of text is an active maker of meanings and not a passive recipient of already constructed ones.

Stuart Hall, who had done this study under the patronage of University of Birmingham’s Center for Contemporary Studies, developed his theory of preferred reading to explain well this conflict of interests. He explained the three broad reading strategies, the dominant, negotiated and oppositional. The dominant reading, according to him, is produced by a viewer who agrees and accepts the dominant ideology and the subjectivity it produces. A negotiated reading, on the other hand, is produced when the viewer who generally fits into the dominant ideology, takes into account his or her social position and thus reads the text based on his or her social experience. An oppositional reading happens when the viewer’s social situation puts him or her directly in opposition with the dominant ideology.

Various television programs were studied, and examples are drawn out of action and “muscle” drama. It was concluded that a dominant reader of the genre would find pleasure in it because it reproduces in him or her, a subject position that fits easily into the dominant ideology (ex. masculinity, individualism, competition, etc.). Negotiated readers, like young boys, (because of their social standing) will read the text as a means for them to boost their “masculinity”. Negotiated readers tend to match their social experience with the ideology in the text. Oppositional readers on the other hand, will go against the text to deconstruct the dominant ideology. Advocates of feminism will read this genre as a blatant display of patriarchal chauvinism.

Popular culture such as television and advertising often presents to viewers programs or ads that construct various ideologies such as masculinity, patriarchal chauvinism, women as the weaker sex, passive and submissive; men as intelligent than women, etc. Oppositional readers, by nature of their opposition to dominant ideology will deconstruct these messages by not giving them a second thought.

What do I think?

Cultural studies offer an interesting realization that indeed, popular culture, especially television, not to mention MTV and advertisements, offer viewers different programs that construct various ideologies, most of them falling under the category of dominant ideology.

It is a common practice in our communities whenever we see a movie either on television or in the theater to discuss among us the merits of the movie that was shown. It is also true with television programs and other media. In the course of sharing, it is to be expected that one or two will differ with the others in her view or perception of some particular scenes or the way the story developed. Sometimes what is positive for some will be seen as negative by others. It is indeed a fact that a lot of things contribute in the way we read the text. Our perception is often shaped by our family background, education, and experiences in life.

References:

1. The Social Construction of Reality, Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, Doubleday &
Company, 1966.

2. Representing Reality, by Jonathan Potter, Chapter 4, pp. 97-118.

3. British Cultural Studies, by John Fiske, Chapter 8, pp. 284 – 323, ed. by Robert Allen,
Channels of Discourse Reassembled, 4th ed.

Acrivists Nuns, Liberated Women in Sr. Stella L.

A Film Review

Set in the 1980’s, the film is reflective of the social issues that were confronting Philippine society during the martial law era. The country was still under Marcos rule, but surprisingly, the film despite its activist’s orientation, was allowed for exhibition. Perhaps, Mike de Leon’s treatment of the social issue in this particular film was not overtly critical of the government as it was of the corporate world.

Sr. Stella L. is a woman’s film, told from the perspective of a woman. All the women in this film are strong women, with the exception of Gina Alajar, who played the role of a pregnant and emotionally distraught woman, in need of counseling. The two Stella’s, nuns working for the underprivileged, became participants and leaders of a group of factory workers who are protesting for just compensation and fair working conditions. Just compensation and positive working conditions have long been regarded as a feminist issue in contemporary society where women generally do not get the same benefits and treatment men normally received or accorded to in the workplace. In the film, the issue of just compensation being waged upon by the striking workers was given a feminist perspective when the two Stella’s joined the strikers.

However, this is not to say that the film does not have any scene that runs contrary to feminist idea of how women should be represented in cinema. As a matter of fact, those scenes exist.

Cinema’s representation of women has always been stereotyped. Haskell and Rosen’s studies on reflection theory posit that film does not simply reflect the social reality of women but also perpetuate male’s point of view that women are inferior to men. (Petro, 69)

The idea of a woman becoming a nun has always been somewhat of a puzzle to many simply because society has created this image or understanding that a woman’s place is beside a man, in the home, with the family. Thus, becoming a nun is not a matter of choice, or calling, that the person believes in, but a desperate act of running from reality and challenges from the world. Obviously, this is what the character of Jay Ilagan believes in his heart. He is the typical macho image who opines that women should not make choices opposite to what they are supposed to become.

This clichéd representation of women in films, whether in Hollywood or not, became the target of feminists’ attention and critique. Feminists criticize images of women being portrayed in films pointing out the inconsistencies of those portrayals in real lives. (Mayne, 49)

Contemporary films, whether at home or abroad, usually portrayed women in traditional roles, or objectifying them, thus perpetuating patriarchal ideology.

Sr. Stella L. is a departure from the common notion by society that nuns are women detached from the realities of the world. On the contrary, they are very much aware of the societal realities around them. And they are strong women who are deeply perceptive of their feminine gifts. Quite obviously, Mike de Leon understood this fact. Nevertheless, the film also manages to convey that Stella L. still moves and lives in a patriarchal society. Jay Ilagan’s character for instance, argues with his editor that he knows Stella well; that her decision for joining the protesters was not her own volition as much as her motives in entering the convent was not clear to her. This is once again putting women in a box, categorizing them as weak and incapable of rational thinking.

The protest in the film went on for a long time, and at night, the women serve coffee and snacks to the men. Again a typical representation of what women should be doing – to serve the needs of the men.

When Stella L. and Jay’s character were abducted by the factory owner’s henchmen, the men tried to break Stella’s resolve by instilling fear in her while attempting to molest her. Again, the patriarchal idea of subjugating women by treating them as sexual objects, thus reinforcing male domination of women.

Stella L.’s involvement with the protesters was a divergence from the traditional concept of a woman’s role. From a counselor (typically considered a woman’s job) to pregnant Gina Alajar, she became a main player in the workers’ union, which was a male group. At the end of the film, Stella L. talks to the audience and narrates her ongoing commitment in helping the union achieve what they are fighting for. She became a strong force for them in fighting the existing oppressive social structures.

A feminist reading analyzes two different representations of women in this film. One representation is that women (the two Stella’s) are presented as liberated and independent, with leadership qualities normally associated only with men. Are their being nuns represented a caricature of the religious life? Not at all. Although not all nuns are activists on the street, but activists and rebels they are in a way, because they dare to break the usual mold traditional society has for women.

There is also a strong bond of friendship that exists between the two women, which is presumably connected by their common calling. Although the two Stella’s connectedness with one another cannot be classified in the same way Arbuthnot and Seneca (113) describe the close relationship between Dorothy and Lorelei in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes, the strength that springs from their friendship led one to embrace what the other believed in. The older Stella took on the role of a mentor to the younger Stella L.

Stella’s strong arguments with her former boyfriend regarding her choice of becoming a nun, emphasizing that it was her decision and no one else’s, is symbolic of a woman’s emancipation from male domination. A woman can be herself, and emerged as a strong person, without needing a man to achieve such.

Another representation of a positive woman’s role is the lady editor’s. In a patriarchal society, editorship is typically regarded as a man’s job. However, there is a reversal of roles here. In the film, it is the lady editor calling the shots, trashing Jay’s stories, while Jay (as the reporter) giving in (although with much anger) to the decision of the editor.

Another representation shows the traditional concept of woman as normally depicted in films – weak, irrational, incapable of living without a man. This role is typified by the character portrayed by Gina Alajar.

Gina Alajar’s character is what Fischer (166) calls in her essay, Seduced and Abandoned, a person who had no options left in life. Alone and pregnant, she thinks of ending her life in order to stop her suffering. She is the exact opposite of Stella who constantly challenged her to rise above her situation.

The phallic symbol of the knife that ended Gina’s life is a representation of male domination in her life. Symbolically her death came earlier when she was left alone and pregnant. The actual suicide is just a physical representation of the emotional and psychological death she experienced before.

Works Cited:

Arbuthnot, Lucie & Seneca, Gail. “Pre-text and Text in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes.”
Issues in Feminist Criticism. Ed. Patricia Erens. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1990. 113.

Fischer, Lucy. “Seduced and Abandoned Recollection and Romance in Letter From
An Unknown Woman.” Issues in Feminist Criticism. Ed. Patricia Erens.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. 166.

Mayne, Judith. “Feminist Film Theory and Criticism.” Multiple Voices in Feminist
Criticism. Eds. Diane Carson, Linda Dittmar & Janice Welsch. Minnesota:
University of Minnesota Press, 1994. 49.

Petro, Patrice. “Feminism and Film History.” Multiple Voices in Feminist Criticism.
Eds. Diane Carson, Linda Dittmar & Janice Welsch. Minnesota: University of
Minnesota Press, 1994. 69.